Symbol and Referent, Euphemism and Denotation, Connotation, Implication

1.      Symbol and Referent

These terms may clarify the subject. A symbol is something which we use to represent another thing - it might be a picture, a letter, a spoken or written word - anything we use conventionally for the purpose. The thing that the symbol identifies is the referent. This may sometimes be an object in the physical world (the word Rover is the symbol; a real dog is the referent). But it may be something which is not at all, or not obviously, present - like freedom, unicorns or Hamlet.

Difference between both of them that referent is (semantics) the specific entity in the world that a word or phrase identifies or denotes while symbol is a character or glyph representing an idea, concept or object.

(https://www.teachit.co.uk/armoore/lang/semantics.htm#1)

2.      Euphemism

The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something unpleasant.

Euphemism is an idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the distressing act of “firing” its employees.

Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers where they feel the need to replace certain words which may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a particular situation.

Euphemism helps writers to convey those ideas which have become a social taboo and are too embarrassing to mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly which otherwise are not published due to strict social censorship e.g. religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, death etc. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the libelous issues. Lets consider a few more Examples:

·         Collateral damage instead of accidental deaths

·         Use the rest room instead of go to the bathroom

·         Between jobs instead of unemployed

·         Domestic engineer instead of maid

(http://literarydevices.net/euphemism/)

A Euphemism is an expression intended by the speaker to be less offensive, disturbing, or troubling to the listener than the word or phrase it replaces.

A Dysphemism is an expression used to may something sound worse than it is.

When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms are often used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in public relations and politics, where it is sometimes called doublespeak. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or unconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word "cancer”) and religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some words are sacred, or that some words are spiritually imperiling.

The "euphemism treadmill"

Euphemisms can eventually become taboo words themselves through a process the linguist Steven Pinker has called the euphemism treadmill (cf. Gresham's Law in economics).

Words originally intended as euphemisms may lose their euphemistic value, acquiring the negative connotations of their referents. In some cases, they may be used mockingly and become dysphemistic.

For example, toilet room, itself a euphemism, was replaced with bathroom and water closet, which were replaced (respectively) with rest room and W.C.; similarly, funeral director replaced mortician, which replaced undertaker. In American English, the original sense of homely ("comfortable, cozy") has been superseded by the once-euphemistic sense "plain-looking," which is now simply insulting ("ugly").

Connotations easily change over time. Idiot was once a neutral term, and moron a similar one. Negative senses of a word tend to crowd out neutral ones, so the word retarded was pressed into service to replace them. Now that too is considered rude, and as a result, new terms like mentally challenged or special are starting to replace retarded. In a few decades, calling someone special may well be a grave insult. A similar progression occurred with

crippled → handicapped → disabled

The euphemism treadmill also occurs with notions of profanity and obscenity. Words once called "offensive" were later described as "objectionable," and later "questionable."

A complementary "dysphemism treadmill" exists, but is more rarely observed. One modern example is the word "sucks." "That sucks" began as American slang for "that is very unpleasant", and is shorthand for "that sucks dick." It developed over the late-20th century from being an extremely vulgar phrase to near-acceptability.

Classification of Euphemisms

Many euphemisms fall into one or more of these categories:

·         Terms of foreign origin (derriere, copulation, perspire, urinate)

·         Abbreviations (SOB for "son of a bitch")

·         Abstractions (it, the situation, go)

·         Indirections (behind, unmentionables)

·         Mispronunciation (goldarnit, freakin)

·         Plays on abbreviations ("barbecue sauce" for "bull shit")

There is some disagreement over whether certain terms are or are not euphemisms. For example, sometimes the phrase visually impaired is labeled as a politically correct euphemism for blind. However, visual impairment can be a broader term, including, for example, people who have partial sight in one eye, a group that would be excluded by the word blind.

There are three antonyms of euphemism, dysphemism, cacophemism, and power word. The first can be either offensive or merely humorously deprecating with the second one generally used more often in the sense of something deliberately offensive. The last is used mainly in arguments to make one's point seem more correct than opponent's.

Other common euphemisms include:

·        restroom for toilet room (the word toilet was itself originally a euphemism). This is an Americanism.

·         making love to, playing with or sleeping with for having sexual intercourse with

·         motion discomfort bag and air-sickness bag for vomit bag

·         sanitary landfill for garbage dump

·       the big C for cancer (in addition, some people whisper the word when they say it in public, and doctors have euphemisms to use in front of patients)

·         bathroom tissue or bath tissue for toilet paper (Usually used by toilet paper manufacturers)

·         custodian for janitor (also originally a euphemism—in Latin, it means doorman.)

·         sanitation worker for "garbage man"

·         mixologist for bartender

·       Where can I wash my hands? or Where can I powder my nose? for Where can I find a toilet?. (This is also an Americanism. If this question is asked in Europe to someone not used to American habits the person who asks the question might actually end up at a place where there just only is a washbasin and not at a place equipped according to their needs. On the other hand, Americans might find the more direct question rude if asked by Europeans who don't know about this euphemism.)

(E-book – Euphemisms)

1.      Denotation and Connotation

A word’s denotation is its dictionary definition. A word can also make people feel or think a certain way. These feelings and ideas are the connotations of a word. Words with the same meaning can have different “shades of meaning”—that is, they can be understood differently.

Positive connotation : Being on the track team has made Alan slender and lean (attractively thin)

Neutral connotation   : Being on the track team has made Alan thin

Negative connotation            : Being on the track team has made Alan skinny and scrawny (unattractively thin)

Connotations in Action

Positive connotation : Ms. Baxter has been a(n) (valuable, costly) employee of this company for three years. In that time, she has expressed many (militant, strong) opinions. Her methods of solving problems are sometimes (unusual, bizarre). In short, she is a real (leader, show-off).

Negative connotation            : I was surprised to get a birthday gift from my Aunt Joanna. She is (an inquisitive person, a real snoop), so she had asked many of my relatives what I might like. I tore the (colorful, gaudy) paper off the package and found a shirt made of (flimsy, delicate) material. It was covered with (detailed, fussy) embroidery and (flashy, eye-catching) sequins. It certainly was a(n) (strange, exotic) present.

Denotation      : The specific, exact and concrete meaning of a word. This is the meaning you would find in a dictionary.

mother

definition:  female parent

Connotation: The attitudes, feelings and emotions aroused by a word.

Mother	·         attitude:  positive ·         feelings:  love and respect ·         emotions:  security and warmth
“Mommy”	all of the above, plus ·         extra connotations of familiarity and childhood (children call their mothers “mommy” but adults do not)

A word can have positive or negative connotations.  Sometimes words have different connotations to different people because of their experiences. 

Scientists and philosophers focus on the denotations of words in order to communicate exact meaning.  Writers of literature rely more heavily on connotation in order to evoke an emotional response in the reader.   

Same Denotation, Different Connotation?  

Two words can have the same definition while carrying different emotional content.  One word may be cruel or insulting while another word might be neutral or positive.    

Example:

Aunt Myrna is proud of her nephew George. Aunt Willa, by contrast, disapproves of everything George does. Let’s see how their different views of George determine the language they use. 

 The fact is                  : George likes to save money when shopping.

Aunt Myrna says          : “He’s thrifty.”

Aunt Willa says           : “He’s stingy.” 

Both of these words refer to saving money, but they have different connotations.  “Thrifty” suggests that George is smart and knows how to find bargains.  “Stingy” depicts George as greedy and lacking generosity. 

The fact is                   : George works hard.

Aunt Myrna says          : “He’s very focused on his job.”

Aunt Willa says           : “He’s obsessed with his job.” 

Both of these words refer to paying close attention to something;  however, “focused” implies that someone is interested in what they’re doing, while “obsessed” suggests that they are addicted to it. 

The fact is                   : George has a son and two daughters.

Aunt Myrna says          : “George has three children.”

Aunt Willa says           : “George has three brats.” 

“Brat” is a slang word for a noisy, annoying child.  Willa is implying that George’s children misbehave all the time. 

Some words seem more loaded with meaning than others.   friendship, love, vacation, freedom usually arouse pleasant feelings   slum, drunkard, torture, criminal  usually arouse unpleasant feelings  

Politicians and advertisers try to choose words with positive connotations in order to make their message more appealing.  On the other hand, if you are angry at someone, you may choose a word with negative connotations to describe them!

Words can have context-specific connotations that are not always obvious from their dictionary meaning.  For example, the word elderly means “old” but it can only be applied to a person;  no matter how old a house is, it would not be called “elderly.”  Similarly, blonde means “yellow” but it refers only to hair and to some kinds of wood;  it is never used to describe other yellow objects.  It is important to be aware of this in order to avoid misusing words.

Sometimes writers choose euphemisms, which are nice ways to describe things that are upsetting.  For example, English has many euphemisms for death:  instead of saying that someone “died,” we might say they “passed away” or “departed.”  This is a way to avoid the negative associations with certain ideas.

(Ebook – BowValley College, Writing – Denotation/Connotation, Updated by:  A. Tuzlak, June 2010)

Words have two main kinds of meaning, their denotation and their connotation. Denotation is the literal meaning or definition of a word--the explicit, particular, defined meaning, which usually can be pinned down with reasonable precision. Perhaps it could be called the overt, intellectual meaning of a word. Dictionary definitions are denotative meanings.

Connotation is the suggestive meaning of a word--all the values, judgments, and status implied by a word, the historical and associative accretion of "unspoken significance" behind the literal meaning. Many words have evaluative implications behind them, and convey a positive or negative attitude toward the things they name; this flavor of the word or its overtone of meaning--whether it makes you feel like smiling, sneering, kissing, conquering, or giving up--is the word's connotation. We might say it is the emotional meaning of the word. This meaning is seldom found in the dictionary.

Here are just a few examples:

Word	Denotation	Connotation
new	recent origin	better, improved
snake	round reptile	horrible beast
adequate	good enough	not very good
excuse	explanation	weak reason

(http://www.virtualsalt.com/think/semant2.htm)

Implications
"The distinction between denotation and connotation was important in literary criticism and theory from the 1930s to the 1970s. The denotation of a word or phrase is its literal or obvious meaning or reference as specified in a dictionary; the connotations of a word or phrase are the secondary or associated significances that it commonly suggests or implies. This distinction is complicated in practice because many words have more than one denotation and because dictionaries sometimes include definitions of a word based on connotation as well as denotation. E.g., the first set of definitions of the word rose given by the OED tells us that a rose is both 'a well-known beautiful and fragrant flower' and 'a rose-plant, rose-bush, or rose-tree'; in addition, the OED gives a number of 'allusive, emblematic, or figurative uses' (e.g., 'a bed of roses' or 'under the rose') that reveal the huge store of cultural connotations associated with the flower."

(T. Furniss, "Connotation and Denotation." The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, 4th ed.. edited by Stephen Cushman et al, Princeton University Press, 2012)