1.
Symbol and Referent
These terms may
clarify the subject. A symbol is something which we use to represent another thing - it might be
a picture, a letter, a spoken or written word - anything we use conventionally
for the purpose. The thing that the symbol identifies is the referent. This may sometimes
be an object in the physical world (the word Rover is the symbol; a real dog is the
referent). But it may be something which is not at all, or not obviously,
present - like freedom,
unicorns or Hamlet.
Difference between
both of them that referent is (semantics) the specific entity in
the world that a word or phrase identifies or denotes while symbol is a character or glyph representing
an idea, concept or object.
2.
Euphemism
The term euphemism
refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and phrases
considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something unpleasant.
Euphemism is an
idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something
else in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a
euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations
use the term “downsizing” for the distressing act of “firing” its employees.
Euphemism depends
largely on the social context of the speakers and writers where they feel the
need to replace certain words which may prove embarrassing for particular
listeners or readers in a particular situation.
Euphemism helps
writers to convey those ideas which have become a social taboo and are too
embarrassing to mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words
to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly which otherwise are not published
due to strict social censorship e.g. religious fanaticism, political theories,
sexuality, death etc. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to
write figuratively about the libelous issues. Lets consider a few more Examples:
·
Collateral damage instead of accidental deaths
·
Use the rest room instead of go to the bathroom
·
Between jobs instead of unemployed
·
Domestic engineer instead of maid
(http://literarydevices.net/euphemism/)
A Euphemism is an expression intended by the speaker to be less offensive, disturbing, or troubling to the listener than the word or phrase it replaces.
A Dysphemism is an expression used to may something sound worse than it is.
A Euphemism is an expression intended by the speaker to be less offensive, disturbing, or troubling to the listener than the word or phrase it replaces.
A Dysphemism is an expression used to may something sound worse than it is.
When a phrase is
used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is
dropped. Euphemisms are often used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even
when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of
euphemism is used in public relations and politics, where it is sometimes
called doublespeak. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously
or unconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune
(for example, not speaking the word "cancer”) and religious euphemisms,
based on the idea that some words are sacred, or that some words are
spiritually imperiling.
The
"euphemism treadmill"
Euphemisms
can eventually become taboo words themselves through a process the linguist
Steven Pinker has called the euphemism treadmill (cf. Gresham's Law in
economics).
Words
originally intended as euphemisms may lose their euphemistic value, acquiring
the negative connotations of their referents. In some cases, they may be used
mockingly and become dysphemistic.
For
example, toilet room, itself a euphemism, was replaced with bathroom and water
closet, which were replaced (respectively) with rest room and W.C.; similarly,
funeral director replaced mortician, which replaced undertaker. In American
English, the original sense of homely ("comfortable, cozy") has been
superseded by the once-euphemistic sense "plain-looking," which is
now simply insulting ("ugly").
Connotations
easily change over time. Idiot was once a neutral term, and moron a similar
one. Negative senses of a word tend to crowd out neutral ones, so the word
retarded was pressed into service to replace them. Now that too is considered
rude, and as a result, new terms like mentally challenged or special are
starting to replace retarded. In a few decades, calling someone special may
well be a grave insult. A similar progression occurred with
crippled
→
handicapped → disabled
The
euphemism treadmill also occurs with notions of profanity and obscenity. Words
once called "offensive" were later described as
"objectionable," and later "questionable."
A
complementary "dysphemism treadmill" exists, but is more rarely
observed. One modern example is the word "sucks." "That
sucks" began as American slang for "that is very unpleasant",
and is shorthand for "that sucks dick." It developed over the
late-20th century from being an extremely vulgar phrase to near-acceptability.
Classification of Euphemisms
Many euphemisms
fall into one or more of these categories:
·
Terms of foreign origin (derriere, copulation,
perspire, urinate)
·
Abbreviations (SOB for "son of a
bitch")
·
Abstractions (it, the situation, go)
·
Indirections (behind, unmentionables)
·
Mispronunciation (goldarnit, freakin)
·
Plays on abbreviations ("barbecue
sauce" for "bull shit")
There
is some disagreement over whether certain terms are or are not euphemisms. For
example, sometimes the phrase visually impaired is labeled as a politically
correct euphemism for blind. However, visual impairment can be a broader term,
including, for example, people who have partial sight in one eye, a group that
would be excluded by the word blind.
There
are three antonyms of euphemism, dysphemism, cacophemism, and power word. The
first can be either offensive or merely humorously deprecating with the second
one generally used more often in the sense of something deliberately offensive.
The last is used mainly in arguments to make one's point seem more correct than
opponent's.
Other common
euphemisms include:
· restroom for toilet room (the word toilet was itself originally a euphemism).
This is an Americanism.
·
making
love to,
playing with or sleeping with for having
sexual intercourse with
·
motion
discomfort bag and air-sickness
bag for vomit bag
·
sanitary
landfill for
garbage dump
· the big C for cancer (in addition, some people whisper
the word when they say it in public, and doctors have euphemisms to use in
front of patients)
·
bathroom
tissue or
bath tissue for toilet paper (Usually
used by toilet paper manufacturers)
·
custodian for
janitor (also originally a euphemism—in Latin, it means doorman.)
·
sanitation
worker
for "garbage man"
·
mixologist
for
bartender
· Where can
I wash my hands? or Where can I
powder my nose? for Where can I find
a toilet?. (This is also an Americanism. If this question is asked in Europe
to someone not used to American habits the person who asks the question might
actually end up at a place where there just only is a washbasin and not at a
place equipped according to their needs. On the other hand, Americans might
find the more direct question rude if asked by Europeans who don't know about
this euphemism.)
(E-book
– Euphemisms)
1.
Denotation and Connotation
A
word’s denotation is its dictionary
definition. A word can also make people feel or think a certain way. These
feelings and ideas are the connotations
of a word. Words with the same meaning can have different “shades of
meaning”—that is, they can be understood differently.
Positive connotation : Being on the track team has made Alan slender
and lean (attractively thin)
Neutral connotation :
Being on the track team has made Alan thin
Negative connotation : Being on the track team has made
Alan skinny and scrawny (unattractively thin)
Connotations in Action
Positive connotation : Ms. Baxter has been a(n) (valuable, costly)
employee of this company for three years. In that time, she has expressed many
(militant, strong) opinions. Her methods of solving problems are sometimes
(unusual, bizarre). In short, she is a real (leader, show-off).
Negative connotation : I was surprised to get a birthday
gift from my Aunt Joanna. She is (an inquisitive person, a real snoop), so she
had asked many of my relatives what I might like. I tore the (colorful, gaudy)
paper off the package and found a shirt made of (flimsy, delicate) material. It
was covered with (detailed, fussy) embroidery and (flashy, eye-catching)
sequins. It certainly was a(n) (strange, exotic) present.
Denotation :
The specific, exact and concrete meaning of a word. This is the meaning you
would find in a dictionary.
mother
|
definition: female parent
|
Connotation: The attitudes, feelings and emotions
aroused by a word.
Mother
|
·
attitude: positive
·
feelings: love and respect
·
emotions: security and warmth
|
“Mommy”
|
all of the above, plus
·
extra connotations of familiarity and
childhood (children call their mothers “mommy” but adults do not)
|
A
word can have positive or negative connotations. Sometimes words have different connotations
to different people because of their experiences.
Scientists
and philosophers focus on the denotations of words in order to communicate
exact meaning. Writers of literature
rely more heavily on connotation in order to evoke an emotional response in the
reader.
Same Denotation, Different Connotation?
Two words can
have the same definition while carrying different emotional content. One word may be cruel or insulting while
another word might be neutral or positive.
Example:
Aunt
Myrna is proud of her nephew George. Aunt Willa, by contrast, disapproves of
everything George does. Let’s see how their different views of George determine
the language they use.
The
fact is : George likes
to save money when shopping.
Aunt
Myrna says : “He’s thrifty.”
Aunt
Willa says : “He’s stingy.”
Both
of these words refer to saving money, but they have different
connotations. “Thrifty” suggests that
George is smart and knows how to find bargains.
“Stingy” depicts George as greedy and lacking generosity.
The fact is : George works hard.
Aunt
Myrna says : “He’s very focused
on his job.”
Aunt
Willa says : “He’s obsessed with
his job.”
Both
of these words refer to paying close attention to something; however, “focused” implies that someone is
interested in what they’re doing, while “obsessed” suggests that they are
addicted to it.
The fact is : George has a son and two
daughters.
Aunt
Myrna says : “George has three
children.”
Aunt
Willa says : “George has three brats.”
“Brat” is a slang
word for a noisy, annoying child. Willa
is implying that George’s children misbehave all the time.
Some
words seem more loaded with meaning than others. friendship, love, vacation, freedom usually
arouse pleasant feelings slum, drunkard,
torture, criminal usually arouse
unpleasant feelings
Politicians
and advertisers try to choose words with positive connotations in order to make
their message more appealing. On the
other hand, if you are angry at someone, you may choose a word with negative connotations
to describe them!
Words
can have context-specific connotations that are not always obvious from their
dictionary meaning. For example, the
word elderly means “old” but it can only be applied to a person; no matter how old a house is, it would not be
called “elderly.” Similarly, blonde
means “yellow” but it refers only to hair and to some kinds of wood; it is never used to describe other yellow
objects. It is important to be aware of
this in order to avoid misusing words.
Sometimes
writers choose euphemisms, which are nice ways to describe things that are
upsetting. For example, English has many
euphemisms for death: instead of saying
that someone “died,” we might say they “passed away” or “departed.” This is a way to avoid the negative
associations with certain ideas.
(Ebook –
BowValley College, Writing – Denotation/Connotation, Updated by: A. Tuzlak, June 2010)
Words have two main kinds of meaning, their denotation
and their connotation. Denotation is the literal meaning or definition
of a word--the explicit, particular, defined meaning, which usually can be
pinned down with reasonable precision. Perhaps it could be called the overt,
intellectual meaning of a word. Dictionary definitions are denotative meanings.
Connotation is the
suggestive meaning of a word--all the values, judgments, and status implied by
a word, the historical and associative accretion of "unspoken
significance" behind the literal meaning. Many words have evaluative
implications behind them, and convey a positive or negative attitude toward the
things they name; this flavor of the word or its overtone of meaning--whether
it makes you feel like smiling, sneering, kissing, conquering, or giving up--is
the word's connotation. We might say it is the emotional meaning of the word.
This meaning is seldom found in the dictionary.
Here are just a few examples:
Word
|
Denotation
|
Connotation
|
new
|
recent origin
|
better,
improved
|
snake
|
round reptile
|
horrible
beast
|
adequate
|
good enough
|
not very good
|
excuse
|
explanation
|
weak reason
|
Implications
"The distinction between denotation and connotation was important in literary criticism and theory from the 1930s to the 1970s. The denotation of a word or phrase is its literal or obvious meaning or reference as specified in a dictionary; the connotations of a word or phrase are the secondary or associated significances that it commonly suggests or implies. This distinction is complicated in practice because many words have more than one denotation and because dictionaries sometimes include definitions of a word based on connotation as well as denotation. E.g., the first set of definitions of the word rose given by the OED tells us that a rose is both 'a well-known beautiful and fragrant flower' and 'a rose-plant, rose-bush, or rose-tree'; in addition, the OED gives a number of 'allusive, emblematic, or figurative uses' (e.g., 'a bed of roses' or 'under the rose') that reveal the huge store of cultural connotations associated with the flower."
"The distinction between denotation and connotation was important in literary criticism and theory from the 1930s to the 1970s. The denotation of a word or phrase is its literal or obvious meaning or reference as specified in a dictionary; the connotations of a word or phrase are the secondary or associated significances that it commonly suggests or implies. This distinction is complicated in practice because many words have more than one denotation and because dictionaries sometimes include definitions of a word based on connotation as well as denotation. E.g., the first set of definitions of the word rose given by the OED tells us that a rose is both 'a well-known beautiful and fragrant flower' and 'a rose-plant, rose-bush, or rose-tree'; in addition, the OED gives a number of 'allusive, emblematic, or figurative uses' (e.g., 'a bed of roses' or 'under the rose') that reveal the huge store of cultural connotations associated with the flower."
(T. Furniss,
"Connotation and Denotation." The
Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, 4th ed.. edited by
Stephen Cushman et al, Princeton University Press, 2012)
