Sabtu, 17 Desember 2016

Ruth Wodak

Error Analysis

STUDENTS’ ABILITY IN APPLYING QUESTION TAG AT THE SECOND SEMESTER OF ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF FKIP LANCANG KUNING UNIVERSITY

1.       Verb Tense
A.      Error identification  : Grammar is one of language component
Error correction        : Grammar is one of language components
B.      Error identification : Tag question are used in conversation and are not used in formal English
Error correction        : Tag question is used in conversation and it is not used in formal English
C.      Error identification  : Randolph Qiurk and Sidney Greentown state that.....
Error correction        : Randolph Qiurk and Sidney Greentown states that.....
D.      Error identification  : Any andriyani (2012) conduct the research.....
Error correction        : Any andriyani (2012) conducts the research.....
E.       Error identification  : The researcher get
Error correction        : The researcher gets
F.       Error identification  : The students is
Error correction        : The students are
G.     Error identification  : Researcher will give 25 question
Error correction        : Researcher will give 25 questions
H.      Error identification  : The researcher gave 30 minute..... one correct answer got 5 point
Error correction        : The researcher gave 30 minutes..... one correct answer got 5 points
2.       Word Order
A.      Error identification  : Pertaining to the syllabus structure II at second semester course
Error correction        : Pertaining to the syllabus structure II course at second semester
B.      Error identification  : Knowledge of grammar is given in the course structure
Error correction        : Knowledge of grammar is given in the structure course
C.      Error identification  : Behaviour students’c
Error correction        : Students’ behaviour or Behaviour of the students
3.       Subject/Verb Agreement -
4.       Pronouns                            : -
5.       Spelling
A.      Error identification  : Students’ ability in appying question tag at thr second semester
Error correction        : Students’ ability in appying question tag at the second semester
B.      Error identification  : To ful fill the target
Error correction        : To fulfill the target
C.      Error identification  : The popupaltion
Error correction        : Tthe population
6.       Capitalization
A.      Error identification  : Mean of the score
: Number of the student
: The score of variance
: Number of cases-1
: The score
: The average of the score
: The score of standard deviation
Error correction        : Mean of the Score
: Number of the Student
: The Score of Variance
: Number of Cases-1
: The Score
: The Average of the Score
: The Score of Standard Deviation
7.       Prepositions                       : -
8.       Articles
A.      Error identification  : At second semester
Error correction        : At the second semester
B.      Error identification  : English Education Department FKIP Lancang Kuning University
Error correction        : English Education Department of FKIP Lancang Kuning University
C.      Error identification  : Researcher will give 25 question
Error correction        : The researcher will give 25 question
D.      Error identification  : Researcher will give 25 question try out the students
Error correction        : Researcher will give 25 question to try out the students
9.       Double negative               : -
10.   Sentence fragment         : -

Sabtu, 22 Oktober 2016

Discourse and Racism


DISCOURSE AND RACISM
RUTH WODAK AND MARTIN REISIGL
Introduction
Before we discuss more about racism, we have to know what the racism is. Racism is a stigmatizing headword and political (fighting word). There is talk of a genetic, biological, cultural, ethnopluralist, institutional, and everyday racism, of a racism at the top, of an elite racism, of a racism in the midst, of and old and a new or neo-racism, of a positive racism, and of an inegalitarian and a differentialist racism.
Racism adalah dimana orang dari kelompok atau lebih ke individu membagakan apa yang ada di dalam dirinya atau menjelekken orang lain yang berbeda atau kelompok lain yang berbeda. Biasanya jika suatu kelompok itu melakukan Racism, kelompok tersebut lebih banyak populasinya dari pada yang di racism kan.
The starting point of a discourse analytical approach to the complex phenomenon of racism is to realize that racism, as both social practice and ideology, manifests itself discursively. On the one hand, racist opinions and beliefs are produced and reproduced by means of discourse; discriminatory exclusionary practices are prepared, promulgated, and legitimated through discourse. On the other hand, discourse serves to criticize, delegitimate, and argue against racist opinions and practices, that is, to pursue antiracist strategies.

The Concept of “Race”: A Historical-Political Etymological Overview
It is currently an undeniable fact for geneticists and biologists that the concept of race, in reference to human beings, has nothing to do with biological reality. From a social functional point of view, race is a social construction. On the one hand, it has been used as a legitimating ideological tool to oppress and exploit specific social groups and to deny them access to material, cultural, and political resources, to work, welfare services, housing, and political rights.
On the other hand, these affected groups have adopted the idea of race. They have turned the concept around and used it to construct an alternative, positive self-identity; they have also used it as a basis for political resistance and to fight for more political autonomy, independence, and participation. From a linguistic point of view, the term race has a relatively recent, although not precisely clear, etymological history.
The Italian razza, the Spanish raza, the Portuguese raça, and the French race (thirteenth century onwards). Beginning in the sixteenth century: (1) The field of ordinal and classificational notions that include such words as genus, species, and varietas, (2) The field that includes social and political group denominations such as nation and Volk (in German), and more rarely, dynasty, ruling house, generation, class, and family and (3) The field that includes notions referring to language groups and language families such as “Germanen” (Teutons) and “Slavs. Up to the eighteenth century, meaning of race in regard to human beings was mainly associated with aristocratic descent and membership, to a specific dynasty or ruling house. The term primarily denoted nobility and quality, and had no reference to somatic criteria yet. However, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries pseudobiological and anthropological systematizations soon conformed its meaning to overgeneralized, phenotypic features designated to categorize people from all continents and countries.

How to Explain Racism
Social cognitive accounts focus on social categorization and stereotyping, relying on the cognitive concepts of prototypes, schemas, stereotypes, and object classification. Hamilton and Trolier (1986), “Argue that the way our minds work, the way we process information, may in itself be sufficient to generate a negative image of a group. They point to several strands of evidence but most notably to the illusory correlation studies” (Wetherell and Potter 1992: 38). Their concepts of society and social environment are quite static, and they assume that prejudicial apperceptions and categorizations (inherent in all persons) are inevitable and cognitively useful.
Social identity theory (Hogg and Abrahams 1988; Tajfel 1981; Tajfel and Turner 1985; Turner 1981, 1985; Turner and Giles 1981; Turner et al. 1987) places the concept of social identity in the center of its social psychological theory of intergroup relations. In contrast to the above-mentioned approach, it recognizes the importance of socialization and group experiences in the development and acquisition of social categories. From the perspective of social identity theory, the social structures individual perception, identity, and action. Categorizations are assumed to be necessary for reducing the complexity of the social world. Individual perception is formed by patterns aligned with group memberships and nonmemberships. These learned patterns of perception tend to favor the in-group and to derogate the out-groups. The image of the in-group is more differentiated than the images of the out-groups, which, all in all, are much more characterized by “internal attributions” than the ingroup.
Racism and ethnocentrism are, in large part, seen as the interpersonal result of group membership and as the psychological effects of identifying with a specific group in economic and social competition with other groups. Some of the causal assumptions of this theory are rather too simple and reductionist. Apart from the simplistic frustration–aggression hypothesis, and the hasty analogical generalization of the results of small-group experiments, the relationship between experiences, thinking, and practices is simply assumed without any closer differentiation. Like the social cognition approach, social identity theory suffers from “a tendency to universalize the conditions for racism and a lingering perceptualism” (Wetherell and Potter 1992: 47). The implications for antiracism are therefore very pessimistic ones.

Five Discourse Analytical Approaches to Racism

1.        Prejudices and Stereotypes
Quasthoff distinguishes between attitudes, convictions, and prejudices. She defines attitudes as the affective position taken towards a person one relates to and to whom one can express dislike or sympathy. Convictions ascribe qualities to others and often provide rationalizations for negative attitudes (e.g. that blacks smell bad). Prejudices are mental states defined (normally) as negative attitudes (the affective element) toward social groups with matching stereotypic convictions or beliefs.
Quasthoff defines the term stereotype as the verbal expression of a certain conviction or belief directed toward a social group or an individual as a member of that social group. The stereotype is typically an element of common knowledge, shared to a high degree in a particular culture. It takes the logical form of a judgment that attributes or denies, in an oversimplified and generalizing manner and with an emotionally slanted tendency, particular qualities or behavioral patterns to a certain class of persons.

2.      The Sociocognitive Approach
According to Van Dijk, prejudice is not merely a characteristic of individual beliefs or emotions about social groups, but a shared form of social representation in group members, acquired during processes of socialization and transformed and enacted in social communication and interaction. Such ethnic attitudes have social functions, (e.g. to protect the interests of the ingroup). Their cognitive structures and the strategies of their use reflect these social functions.
Van Dijk focuses on the rationalization and justification of discriminatory acts against minority groups. He designates the categories used to rationalize prejudice against minority groups as “the 7 Ds of Discrimination”. They are dominance, differentiation, distance, diffusion, diversion, depersonalization or destruction, and daily discrimination.

3.      Discourse Strands and Collective Symbols
Collective symbols are designated as cultural stereotypes in the form of metaphorical and synecdochic symbols that are immediately understood by the members of the same speech community. Water, natural disasters like avalanches and flood disasters, military activities like invasions, all persuasively representing immigration or migrants as something that has to be dammed, are examples of collective symbols, just as are the ship metaphor, symbolizing the effects of immigration as on an overcrowded boat, and the house and door metaphor that metaphorizes the in-groups’ (e.g. national) territory as house or building and the stopping of immigration as bolting the door.

4.      The Loughborough Group
In the manner of Billig (1978, 1985, 1988) and Billig et al. (1988), Wetherell and Potter (1992: 59) posit that racism must be viewed as a series of ideological effects with flexible, fluid, and varying contents. Racist discourses should therefore be viewed not as static and homogeneous, but as dynamic and contradictory. Even the same person can voice contradictory opinions and ideological fragments in the same discursive event.
The Loughborough group stresses the context dependence of racist discourse. Mapping the language of racism in New Zealand, and draw up a racist topography by charting themes and ideologies through exploration of the heterogeneous and layered texture of racist practices and representations that make up a part of the hegemonic taken-for-granted in this particular society. Similarities between the Loughborough and Duisburg approaches go beyond emphasis on context dependence and poststructuralist alignment. Somewhat similar to the Duisburg concept of interdiscourse is the Loughborough concept of interpretative repertoire. However, in its concrete analyses, the Loughborough group mainly focuses on narratives and argumentation and does not pay as much attention to metaphors or symbols and their associates.

5.      The Discourse-Historical Approach
Discourse can be understood as a complex bundle of simultaneous and sequential interrelated linguistic acts which manifest themselves within and across the social fields of action as thematically interrelated semiotic (oral or written) tokens that belong to specific semiotic types (genres).
Discourse about a specific topic can find its starting point within one field of action and proceed through another one. Discourses and discourse topics spread to different fields and discourses. They cross between fields, overlap, refer to each other, or are in some other way sociofunctionally linked with each other (some of these relationships are often described under such labels as textual chains, intertextuality, interdiscursivity, orders of discourse, and hybridity).
Discursive practices are socially constitutive in a number of ways: first, they play a decisive role in the genesis and production of certain social conditions. This means that discourses may serve to construct collective subjects like races, nations, ethnicities, etc. Second, they might perpetuate, reproduce, or justify a certain social status quo (racialized, nationalized, and ethnicized identities related to it). Third, they are instrumental in transforming the status quo (and racializing concepts, nationalities, ethnicities related to it). Fourth, discursive practices may have an effect on the dismantling or even destruction of the status quo (and of racist, nationalist, ethnicist concepts related to it).

References:
Discourse And Racism - Ruth Wodak And Martin Reisigl





Sabtu, 08 Oktober 2016

Pre-Test Error Analysis



Pre-Test Error Analysis
Section A: Mention
1.      What is Error Analysis
2.      Types of Error in Academic writing
3.      Types of Error in students’ Thesis writing

SECTION B:
Instruction: read the text carefully and answer the Questions below:
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Semantics focusing on the relation between signifiers, like words, phrases, signs, and symbols. Linguistics semantics is the study of meaning that is used for understanding human expression through language. Semantics tried to understanding what meaning was as an element of language and how it is constructing by language as well as interpretation, obscured and negotiated by speakers and listeners of language. Semantics is a highly theoretical research perspective and looks at meaning in language in isolation, in the language it self.
Furthermore, semantics is the study of the “toolkit” for meaning, knowledge encoded in the vocabulary of the language and in  its patterns for building more elaborate meanings, up to the level of the sentence meanings. An understanding of semantics is essential to the study of language acquisition, how language users acquired a sense of meaning, as speakers and writers, listeners and readers and of language change, how meanings alter over time. It is important for understanding language in social contexts, as these are likely to affect meaning, and for understanding varieties of English and effects of style. It is thus one of the most fundamental concepts in linguistics.
In fact: semantics is one of the main branches of contemporary linguistics. It is one of pure linguistics branches. The study of semantics included the study of how meaning is constructed, interpreted, clarified, obscured, illustrated, simplified negotiated, contradicted and paraphrased. Semantics looks for general rules that bring out the relationship between forms, which is the observed arrangement of words in sentences and meaning. All people necessarily interested in meaning. Wonder about the meaning of a new word is human nature. Sometimes is hard to ensure the message from such kind of reading and listening as well as concerned about getting the own messages across the others. Finding pleasure in jokes, which often depend for the humor on double meanings of words or ambiguities in the sentences.
Here, the researcher would like to apply English proverbs through semantics point of view. Proverbs are short message of good advice. Some tell us how to act, while others make a general statement from which we can learn something. Moreover, Proverbs are short expressions of popular wisdom. Proverbs are short and pithy sayings that express some traditionally held truth. They are usually metaphorical and often: for the sake of alliterative. And, as so many proverbs offer advice and uplift, many f them are religious in origin. Proverbs is one of the interesting studies to apply through semantics view. Thus, the researcher would like to conducted the correlation research on correlating students’ ability in semantics and their ability to appreciate English proverbs.
Regards to the syllabus got from the semantics lecturer, the students’ should be able to understanding proverbs as one of subfields in semantics. They are targeted to get the meaning
Even appreciate English proverbs. Afterward, there are some phenomena are faced by the students in semantics class which indicate semantics is very totally hard. First of all, students are difficult to understand what semantics is. They are still perplexed to distinguish semantics and other sub discipline of linguistics. Furthermore, the students were difficult obtained the meaning of certain words on semantics view. Students often give meaning on students are so quiet difficult to understand and explain the English proverbs through semantics view because proverbs merely use the expression language that the students rarely hear. They are difficults to get the meaning of proverbs as the requirements of semantics studies. Researching the students’ comprehending toward English proverbs is really excited but challenging. Because not all of the students familiar with the terms also all highs beyond English proverbs. Thus, the delightfully researcher are to research the students’ ability in appreciating English proverbs surely after they have proverbs meeting. To ensure whether they understand it or not, the researcher is going to prove it by conducting correlation research which use two variables. Therefore, the researcher is going to conduct correlation research entitled “The students’ to Appreciate Famous English Proverbs”. The researcher will carried out the researchs at the seventh semester of English Department in Lancang Kuning of University.
 
Questions:
1.      Find the types and numbers of errors in the text above ?
2.      Mentions top-3 of the errors in the terms of Frequency and Percentage from the text above
3.      Which paragraph seems to have the largest number of Errors?

ANSWER:
SECTION A
1.      Error Analysis is one of theoretical as well as methodological concepts that used by the researcher and teachers which involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in the sample, describing these errors, classifying them according to their nature and causes, and evaluating their seriousness.

2.      Types of error in Academic writing
-          Subject-verb agreement errors
-          Verb tense errors
-          Verb form errors
-          Singular/plural noun ending errors
-          Word form errors
-          Sentence structure errors
-          Word choice errors
-          Articles
-          Prepositions of location, time or direction
-          Phrasal verbs

3.      Types of error in students’ thesis writing
-          modality (i.e., level of proficiency in speaking, writing, reading, listening)
-          linguistic levels (i.e., pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, style)
-          form (e.g., omission, insertion, substitution)
-          type (systematic errors/errors in competence vs. occasional errors/errors in performance)
-          cause (e.g., interference, inter language)
-          norm vs. system

SECTION B
1.      Types and numbers of errors in the text above
P-1:
-           Type: Verb tense errors
-          Numbers: 5
P-2:
-           Type : Sentence structure errors, Word choice errors
-          Numbers: 2
P-3:
-          Type: Sentence structure errors
-          Numbers:
P-4:
-          Type:
-          Numbers:
P-5:
-          Type:
-          Numbers:
P-6:
-          Type:
-          Numbers: